History of USA First Years of Union (1797-1809) Brief Overview People Timeline People Events & Qs
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Brief Overview
When George Washington announced he would not seek reelection in 1796, the nation was more divided than it had ever been. The battle for power between Republicans and Federalists was the primary political reality of the period. In 1796, the Federalists were winning this battle, and controlled Congress, the judiciary, and the presidency under newly elected John Adams. Adams set out to continue the development of the infant nation and solidify Federalist power and principles of government. His first challenge came in the realm of international relations. In response to the seizure of American ships at sea, Adams began what became known as the Quasi-war, in which neither the US nor France declared war against one another but during which the two sides engaged in naval conflict.
In preparation for a possible open war with France, Adams built up the military through heavy taxes and heavy expenditures. In addition, the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts. These acts were drafted to protect the United States from foreign threats to national security, but their effect was to imprison or deport immigrants without a fair trial, and to brutally silence all political opposition. Outraged at the gall of the Federalists, the population voted overwhelmingly Republican in the election of 1800, in which Thomas Jefferson emerged victorious.
Jefferson would later describe his election in 1800 as a "revolution" because of the sharp swing in political ideology it signaled in America. Indeed, Jefferson quickly set about tearing down the remnants of Federalist government, beginning with the army and the accumulated national debt. One of the most prominent forums in which he attacked Federalist power was in the judicial system, even going so far as to support the impeachment of two federal judges.
In 1803 Jefferson engineered the Louisiana Purchase, more than doubling the size of the US. The Louisiana Purchase may have been the most important event in the first half-century of American history, immediately opening the West to exploration and settlement. Lewis and Clark, now legends of American history, were the most well known explorers of the Louisiana Territory.
However, the Louisiana Purchase also opened the United States to foreign conflict, as many nations strove to achieve dominance in the affairs of North America. Shortly after the US took possession of the new territory, disputes arose with Spain over its borders. In an effort to solve America's territorial problems, Thomas Jefferson entered into negotiations with Napoleon Bonaparte of France, who saw in the dispute a chance to strengthen France's influence in North America and manipulate international affairs favorably.
Jefferson's willingness to engage in international politics with the conniving Bonaparte spurred some Republicans to leave the party and form a faction known as the Tertium Quids, which while they did not seriously challenge Jefferson's power or that of the Republican majority, showed that disunity was a possibility within the Republican Party and had to be guarded against. Another challenge to Jefferson and to the nation was the Aaron Burr conspiracy, an ill-fated attempt by the former vice president to attack Texas and secede from the Union with settlers from the southwest frontier. These two internal challenges well in hand, Jefferson was able to turn his attention to increasing tensions between the US and both Britain and France.
Britain and France, at war with one another, each tried to use the United States as a pawn with which to harm the other. The United States found itself the victim of an economic war, its merchant ships seized by both nations and its neutrality in jeopardy. Jefferson responded in 1807 with the Embargo Act which isolated the US from the world economically. Though he hoped to force France, and especially Britain, into respecting US neutrality, the US was the first nation to give in, lifting the Embargo Act in 1809 with nothing more than a depressed economy to show for it. Though Jefferson's final endeavor as president was a distinct failure, he is generally considered a success, and the Republicans continued to enjoy the support of the majority of the American people after he left office.
Timeline
March 4, 1797: John Adams Inaugurated Adams succeeds George Washington and becomes the second president of the United States after a tight election. Thomas Jefferson, the runner-up, becomes vice president.
October 1797: The XYZ Affair French foreign minister Charles de Tallyrand refuses to meet with an American diplomatic envoy unless paid 250,000 dollars for himself and guaranteed a $12 million loan for France. The American public is outraged.
June - July 1798: Alien and Sedition Acts Passed Adams signs the four measures that make up the Alien and Sedition Acts into law, rousing staunch opposition from Republicans and even some Federalists. The Alien and Sedition Acts represent the height of Federalist expansion of the powers of national government.
November - December 1798: Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions are Adopted Kentucky and Virginia adopt resolutions, written anonymously by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, which affirm the doctrine of states' rights over the national government, and assert that states maintain the power of interposition, allowing them to review the constitutionality of congressional measures.
October 1, 1800: Treaty of San Ildefonso Signed The Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed by France and Spain, grants France ownership of the Louisiana Territory.
February 27, 1801: The Judiciary Act of 1801 is Passed The Judiciary Act of 1801 is passed, creating sixteen new federal judgeships and reducing the number of Supreme Court justices from six to five, robbing Jefferson of his first appointment.
March 4, 1801: Thomas Jefferson Inaugurated After a Republican victory in the election of 1800, Jefferson becomes the nation's third president.
February 1803: John Marshall Delivers his Decision in Marbury v. Madison Supreme Court Chief Justice Marshall decrees that the Judiciary Act of 1789 is unconstitutional in its affirmation of the right of the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus. This decision established the Supreme Court's power of judicial review.
December 20, 1803: US Takes Possession of Louisiana Eight months after the Louisiana Purchase is negotiated in April, the US takes formal possession of the new territory, doubling the nation's size.
May 1804: Lewis and Clark Set Out Off from St. Louis After preparing over the winter, the famous expedition, led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark begins north on the Missouri River with a team of 45 military personnel.
November 7, 1805: Lewis and Clark Reach The Pacific Ocean Convention Having traveled over the mountains in southern Idaho and down the Snake and Columbia Rivers, the expedition reaches the mouth of the Columbia, on the Pacific Ocean, where they spend their second winter.
September 1806: Lewis and Clark Return to St. Louis The expedition returns intact to St. Louis, having traveled 3,000 miles in just two and a half years, an unprecedented feat. Their return prompts great interest in the west.
June 22, 1807: The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair The British naval frigate HMS Leopard follows the American naval frigate USS Chesapeake out of Norfolk harbor in Virginia, and opens fire upon it after a request to board is denied. The Chesapeake, not prepared for battle, loses three men and has twenty wounded, and permits the British to board. The British naval officers board, seize four men who had deserted the royal navy, hang them from a yardarm, and sail away.
September 1, 1807: Aaron Burr Acquitted of Treason After his planned conspiracy to attack Texas and secede from the Union fails, Burr is captured and tried for treason. Chief Justice Marshall rules that the inoperative intent to divide the Union does not constitute treason, and Burr is acquitted.
December 22, 1807: The Embargo Act is Passed In response to the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, Jefferson advocates the Embargo Act, which forbids ships to leave from American ports for trade with foreign ports. He intends the embargo to work as peaceable coercion, forcing the British and French to respect American neutrality at sea.
March 3, 1809: The Embargo Act is Repealed After over a year of economic suffering in the United States, and the rise of vocal public criticism of the Embargo Act, the act is repealed, and replaced with a tamer non-intercourse law regarding France and Britain.
March 4, 1809: James Madison Inaugurated Though the nation was disappointed with Jefferson's final major action in office, the Embargo Act, the Republicans remained the majority party, and James Madison easily won the 1808 election, becoming the nation's fourth president in 1809.
Key People
John Adams
John Adams was America's second president, from 1797 to 1801. A Federalist, his most notable actions in office were the undertaking of the Quasi-war with France and the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.
Aaron Burr
Aaron Burr ran for president in 1800, chosen by the party to be Jefferson's vice president. However, every Republican elector voted for Jefferson and Burr so a tie ensued that had to be resolved by the House of Representatives. After a considerable struggle in the House, and Burr's refusal to withdraw, Jefferson became president, and Burr was politically dead. Later, Burr would attempt to lead a bizarre conspiracy to attack Texas and secede from the Union. Burr also eventually killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel.
Albert Gallatin
Gallatin was Jefferson's secretary of treasury, and played an important role in undoing many of the financial initiatives of the Federalists, including cutting taxes and expenditures, lowering the national debt, and divesting the government of its stock holdings in the Bank of the United States.
Thomas Jefferson
The leader of the Republican Party, Jefferson was president from 1801 to 1809, during which time he organized the national government by Republican ideals, doubled the size of the nation, and struggled to maintain American neutrality.
Lewis and Clark
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, most often known collectively as Lewis and Clark, were commissioned by Jefferson to explore the new territory of the Louisiana Purchase. They traveled 3,000 miles in two and a half years, collecting scientific data and specimens, and charting the territory to the west of the Mississippi. Their journey spurred much interest throughout the nation in further exploration and settlement in the West.
James Madison
James Madison was Jefferson's secretary of state and chosen successor to the presidency. Madison was an ardent Republican, and anonymously authored the Virginia Resolution, which denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts.
John Marshall
John Marshall was the chief Justice of the Supreme Court during Jefferson's presidency. His most notable decision during this time came in Marbury v. Madison, in which he asserted the principle of judicial review, which stated that the Supreme Court could deem an act of Congress unconstitutional.
Zebulon Pike
Pike earned the nickname "the lost pathfinder" due to his misadventures in exploring the headwaters of the Mississippi, and later the Arkansas River. It is suspected by many that his true mission in exploring the Arkansas may have been to investigate Spanish positions south of the American territory. Pike's maps of the southern portion of the Louisiana Territory proved invaluable to future explorers and settlers.
John Randolph
John Randolph, a Republican leader in the House of Representatives, led the faction which became known as the Tertium Quids, breaking from the main party in disapproval of Jefferson's actions in regard to West Florida.
Sacajawea
During their first winter, at a Mandan Indian village, Lewis and Clark hired as an interpreter a French fur-trader, Toussaint Charbonneau, and his Indian wife Sacajawea. Though Charbonneau proved to be only of limited help, Sacajawea was indispensable as a guide, especially during the crossing of the Bitteroot Mountains in what is now southern Idaho. She showed the party how to forage for food, and was instrumental in maintaining good relations with the Indian tribes of what is now the northwest US.
Charles de Tallyrand
Tallyrand was the French foreign minister during Jefferson's presidency. He was instrumental in France's continued efforts to dominate and maipulate the US governments. In October 1797, it was he who perpetrated the XYZ Affair, sending anonymous agents to meet an American diplomatic envoy and demand a bribe for Tallyrand before he would meet with them. Later, Tallyrand would negotiate the Louisiana Purchase, and after, attempt to stir up disputes between Spain and the US over the definitions of their borders in North America.
James Wilkinson
James Wilkinson was the military commander of the Louisiana Territory; he sent Zebulon Pike on his exploration missions. Heavily involved in espionage, it is known that Wilkinson was on Spain's payroll for his part in trying to persuade southwestern settlers to secede from the Union. Wilkinson entered into cahoots with Aaron Burr in Burr's attempted conspiracy, only to betray Burr to Jefferson.
Terms
Alien and Sedition Acts
The 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts consisted of four acts dealing with the protection of national security, the Alien Enemies Act, the Alien Friends Act, the Naturalization Act, and the Sedition Act. While Federalists claimed these acts were essential for national security, Republicans countered that they were politically motivated and served only to deny Americans of their guaranteed rights to fair trial and free speech. The Alien and Sedition Acts were the undoing of the Federalist Party, as Thomas Jefferson won the presidency in 1800 based largely on popular dissatisfaction with the acts.
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair
The peak of British disrespect for American neutrality at sea, on June 22, 1807, The British naval frigate HMS Leopard followed the American naval frigate USS Chesapeake out of Norfolk harbor in Virginia, and opened fire upon it after a request to board had been denied. The Chesapeake, not prepared for battle, lost three men and had twenty wounded, and permitted the British to board. The British naval officers boarded, seized four men who had deserted the royal navy, hanged them from a yardarm, and sailed away. Jefferson responded with the Embargo Act.
Embargo Act
In response to the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, Jefferson endorsed the Embargo Act, passed on December 22, 1807, which shut America off from the world economically by forbidding ships from leaving American ports to trade with other nations. He hoped the embargo would put economic pressure on the French, and especially the British. It did, but America suffered far more due to its economic isolation, and the Embargo Act was repealed on March 3, 1809.
Federalists
The Federalists believed in a strong central government at the expense of state power. The nation's first two presidents, George Washington and John Adams, were Federalists, and during their terms, all branches of the national government were in Federalist hands.
Interposition
In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, Kentucky and Virginia adopted resolutions, anonymously written by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, which asserted that the states retained the power of interposition, which gave them the right to determine the constitutionality of congressional measures.
Judicial Review
Established by Chief Justice John Marshall in Marbury v. Madison, the principle of judicial review held that the Supreme Court could declare an act of Congress unconstitutional.
Marbury v. Madison
John Adams made a number of appointments to federal justice positions on his way out of office. One of those, the appointment of William Marbury as justice of the peace in the District of Columbia, was not delivered by midnight of his last night in office. Secretary of state James Madison refused to deliver the commission to Marbury, who asked the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus ordering Madison to do so. Chief Justice John Marshall denied Marbury the writ, ruling that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional in granting the Supreme Court the power to issue such a writ. This established the principle of judicial review.
Midnight Appointments
Between December 12, 1800, when it became clear that he would not win reelection, and the day of Jefferson's inauguration, March 4, 1801, Adams appointed a significant number of federal judges. These midnight appointments consisted exclusively of Federalists, most of who had previous political or familial ties to prominent party members. Though Jefferson originally declared that he would not dismiss any Federalist appointees, he later revised this statement to protect only the appointees who did not fall into this category of midnight appointments.
Quasi-war
Quasi-war was the term that became widely used to describe French and American naval conflicts which took place between 1798 and 1800. Though neither nation declared war on the other, each carried out naval operations against the other. John Adams started the Quasi-war in response to French aggression at sea.
Republicans
Republicans centered their political ideology on the states' rights doctrine. They believed in distributing governmental power to the states rather than concentrating it in the hands of the central government. The Republican Party became a political force in the later years of the Washington presidency, and was a constant thorn in Adams' side. In 1800, Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, took control of the national government and would maintain that control for decades.
Tertium Quids
The Quids were a faction of the Republican Party led by John Randolph, which split off from the main party in 1806 in disapproval of Jefferson's negotiations with Napoleon Bonaparte to purchase West Florida. The Quids never presented a substantial challenge to the main Republican Party.
Events
Election of 1800
Thomas Jefferson called the election of 1800 "as real a revolution in the principles of our government as that of 1776 was in its form." The election of 1800 marked the transition of power from Federalists to Republicans, and began a period of tearing down the Federalist style of government and building up a Republican framework.
Louisiana Purchase
Negotiated in April 1803, the Louisiana Purchase was one of the most important events in US history. It doubled the size of the nation, opening the west to exploration and settlement. With the Louisiana Purchase came the possibility of expansion and also the strife which would accompany the admission of new states from that region. Additionally, the Louisiana Purchase created a period during which the US could not detangle itself from foreign affairs, as its borders were increasingly changing and called into question.
XYZ Affair
In response to continued French aggression at sea, John Adams sent a diplomatic envoy to France to negotiate for peace in 1797, just after a coup d'etat in the directory. Charles de Tallyrand, the new French foreign minister, refused to meet with the US delegation, instead sending three anonymous agents, X, Y, and Z. The agents delivered the message that Tallyrand would not begin talks until he received 250,000 dollar for himself, and France received a $12 million loan. This widely publicized (in America) attempt at extortion aroused public outrage among the American people, some of whom called for war.
Study Questions
Thomas Jefferson commented late in life that the election of 1800 was "as real a revolution in the principles of our government as that of 1776 was in its form." Why did Jefferson believe this, and was he correct?
Jefferson and the Republicans saw themselves as the saviors of the nation, freeing it from the tyrannical grips of a party bent on elitism and tending toward monarchy. While there was certainly a vast difference between the Federalists' style of government and the Republican style which Jefferson would bring to the national government, most historians think that to frame the transition as one from incipient monarchy to virtuous republicanism is to exaggerate the circumstances a great deal. John Adams was certainly not in pursuit of monarchy. He very much believed in the principles of democracy. However, he came from a school of thought that considered all men to be basically evil, and he sought to place the power of government in the hands of the least evil and most rational, which he thought to be represented by the political and social elites. Jefferson, for his part, most likely similarly considered men to be driven by self-interest and greed. However, he was from the school of thought which believed that the pursuit of self-interest could lead to social benefits, and thought that government should not limit the governed so much that they could not undertake this pursuit. The difference in ideology was thus not as stark as Jefferson would have painted it.
During the controversy over the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Republican Party took on the cause of states' rights as their ideological cornerstone. However, in 1803, during the limited debate over the Louisiana Purchase, House Federalists invoked the states' rights doctrine as well. Why did they take this action and what does that say about the states' rights doctrine?
While the majority of the nation supported the Louisiana Purchase, many Federalists raised some opposition to it because they believed the expansion of the nation would dilute the political power of their strongholds on the eastern seaboard. Jefferson's consistent assertion that the farmers were the backbone of America and would benefit from this expansion of arable land did not help to assuage these fears. Thus what little debate there was over ratification centered largely on the assertion on the part of the Federalist minority that no new states should be created in the Louisiana Territory without the consent of the original thirteen. The Republican majority easily rebuffed this claim, and the treaty was easily ratified. The appeal to states' rights by the Federalists seems anomalous considering it had been the Republican opposition during John Adams' presidency that had brought the issue to the fore, and the Federalists who had consistently advocated for a strong central government. Historians point to the debate over ratification to argue that perhaps the states' rights doctrine was less of an ideological cornerstone for the Republicans than a universally useful defense mechanism raised by those out of power against those in control of the national government.
How did the secretary of treasury under Jefferson, Albert Gallatin, specifically target his initiatives to counter the Federalist economics that Alexander Hamilton had established as the norm under George Washington's presidency?
Alexander Hamilton's main initiatives as secretary of treasury had been the establishment of a national bank, a running national debt, and the regulation of commerce. Once in office, Jefferson and Gallatin strove to tear down these remnants of Federalist economics one by one. Both Jefferson and Gallatin believed in the principle of free trade and sought to cut regulation of commerce within reason. They immediately cut nearly all internal taxes, and balanced the cut with reductions in the military, which had been built up under Adams. Frugal spending and an increase in trade, which resulted in higher customs receipts, meant that by 1806 the US was running a budgetary surplus which Gallatin used to pay down the debt. Gallatin's boldest move, which attacked both the governmental attachment to the national bank and the national debt, was the 1802 sale of the US government's stock in the bank to the House of Baring in London. Gallatin used the profit from this sale to pay a large installment on the debt owed to the Dutch. Thus Gallatin had successfully attacked the bastions of Federalist economics, and would continue to do so throughout his tenure.
