European History The Fall of Rome (150CE-475CE) Brief Overview Timeline People & Events
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Brief Overview
From the middle of the second century CE, The Roman Empire faced increasing Germanic tribe infiltration along the Danubian and Rhine borders, and internal political chaos. Without efficient imperial succession, Romans in from the third century set up generals as emperors, who were quickly deposed by rival claimants. Facilitating further territorial losses to Barbarian tribes, this continued until Diocletian (r. 284-305). He and Constantine (324-337) administratively reorganized the empire, engineering an absolute monarchy. Cultivating a secluded imperial tenor, Constantine the Great patronized Christianity, particularly in his new city Constantinople, founded on the ancient site of Byzantium. Christianization, in the Hellenized and Mediterranean cities and among certain Barbarian newcomers, proceeded with imperial support, and became the state religion under Theodosius (r. 379-95). Germanic tribal invasions also proceeded, as did battles with the Sassanids in the East. From 375 Gothic invasions, spurred by Hunnic marauding, began en masse, particularly in Danubian, Balkan areas. Entanglement with imperial armies resulted in Roman defeats, and increased migration into Roman heartlands as far as Iberia. The Empire, as military and bureaucracy, underwent a certain Germanization. From the death of Theodosius, the Eastern Empire followed its own course, evolving into the Hellenized Byzantine state by the seventh century, as repeated sackings of Latin Rome (410, 455), contraction of food supplies to the West, and deposition of the last Western Emperor (Romulus Augustulus) by the Ostrogoth Odovacar (476), ended any hope of recovering Pax-Romana in the Mediterranean basin. Gaul was controlled by a shifting patchwork of tribes.
But though the Empire itself no longer existed, through the Christian Church, through the always idealized vision of glorious Rome, and through the political structures that evolved out of Rome's carcass, vestiges of the Empire played vital and identifiable roles in the formation of the early Medieval European world.
Timeline
161-180 CE: Rule of Marcus Aurelius
162-165: War Against Parthia Roman victories at Dura Europa, Ctesiphon.
165-180s: Plague in Roman Lands
167-175: First Marcomanni War Marcus Aurelius defeats Marcomanni and Quadi by 174.
175: Avidius Cassius Insurrection
178-180: Second Marcomanni War Marcus Aurelius advances to Bohemia and Carpathian mountains. Dies.
180-192: Commodius' rule His reign is characterized by numerous insurrections; he is finally murdered in 192 by the Praetorian Guard.
193: Year of internal revolts Many rival claimants vie for control of the Empire. Pertinax's murder. Septimius Severus finally wins out.
193-235: Era of Severi Emperors
193-211: Rule of Septimius Severus Campaigns against Parthians and Barbarian raids. Shows profound disregard for the Senate.
222-235: Rule of Severus Alexander Wars against Parthia and Marcomanni. Emperor is slain, end of the Severi Dynasty.
235-285: Era of Soldier-Emperors Wars against Persians, Barbarian raids, continuous civil war.
225-230s: Sassanids rise in Persia Pose a new, expansive Persian threat to Rome in East.
285-306: Rule of Diocletian Empire split into West and East. Diocletian's trusted ally Maximian installed as Eastern Emperor. Empire restructured into a military, bureaucratic state. Economic reforms, rule by Tetrarchate. Secluded emperor.
303-311: Diocletian Persecutions of Christians
306: Diocletian and Maximian's abdication. Civil war.
312: Battle of Milvian Bridge Constantine of Britain defeats Maxentius in N. Italy, becoming sole ruler in West. Constantine favors Christianity.
313: Edict of Milan Constantine and Licinius, the Eastern ruler, agree to end Diocletian persecutions of Christianity. Christianity is legalized.
324-337: Constantine as Sole Ruler Constantine defeats Licinius, becomes sole ruler, continues Diocletian's reforms, patronizes Christianity.
325: Council of Nicaea Meeting of a church council, presided over by Emperor, to determine Orthodox faith. Arianism loses out.
330: Constantinople dedicated
3361-363: Rule of Julian the Apostate As Emperor, tries to disestablish Christianity. Pro-pagan. Dies in East while fighting Parthians.
375-378: Rule of Valens in East, Gratian in West (to 383) Ostrogothic Black Sea kingdom destroyed by Huns. Huns push all tribes before them to the Danube and Rhine borders of the Roman Empire.
378: Battle of Adrianopole Valens defeated, killed by Visigoths he had allowed to cross the border but had not supplied. Defeate occurred so quickly, Gratian did not have time to arrive and offer support.
379-95: Reign of Theodosius Renews agreements with Visigoths, they are settled as foederati below the Danube.
380: Arianism prohibited in East
384: Peace with Sassanids
391: Christianity recognized as state religion Paganism proscribed, Judaism oppressed.
395: Death of Theodosius Empire partitioned between Theodosius' sons. Arcadius in East, Honorius in West. Imperial unity between East and West ends; the East, called Byzantium, begins autonomous course.
396: Visigothic departure Following Theodosius' death, Alaric takes Visigoths out of Balkans, going west.
401-403: Visigoth incursions into Italy Attack on northern Italy. Beaten back by Stilicho at Pollenza (402).
406: Large-scale Barbarian invasion along Rhine Rhadagaesius leads great Barbarian army dominated by Vandals, and including Alans, Suevis, and Burgundians, across the frozen Rhine at Mainz. The Barbarians attack cities and agricultural areas in Gaul, forcing the indigenous population into the hills.
408: Visigoths return to Italy Alaric, seeing Stilicho occupied, returns to Italy, wanting food and status within the Roman military hierarchy. Honorius flees to Ravenna.
410: First Sack of Rome Given desperate material circumstances and no concessions from Imperial authorities, Alaric permits small sack of Rome.
410-12: Visigoths in S. Italy Visigoths attempt to get passage to N. Africa; their ships are destroyed, and Alaric dies. Athaulf becomes king, but remains unable to work out an agreement with Honorius.
416-419: Wallia as Visigothic King He takes the tribe out of Italy, and fights for Honorius against a rival claimant to the throne; in return, the Visigoths are settled as foederati with hospitalitas in N. West Gaul and seep into N. East Spain, setting up their own kingdom. Stilicho murdered.
420s-440s: Barbarian settlements Widespread use of foederati- hospalitas to settle Visigoths, Burgundians, Suevi, Lombards, etc. in Roman lands. These tribes begin establishing autonomous kingdoms.
429-35: Vandal passage to N. Africa Under Gaiseric, Vandals move through Spain, cross to N. Africa, occupy Carthage, cut off grain supplies to Rome, and begin pirate raiding.
440s: Aetius as western Master of Soldiers
440-450: Hun threat to Eastern Empire Under Kings Rugilla and Attila, the Huns raid north of Constantinople and demand increasing tributes. Eastern Emperor Marcian refuses higher tribute payments in 450.
450-54: Huns in West Going west to 'protect' Honoria, Atilla and Huns plunder Gaul. Aetius successfully enlists Barbarian support against them.
451: Battle of Catalaunian Plains With a mixed Barbarian-Roman army, Aetius defeats the Huns.
453-4: Atilla dies Died without successfully introducing political order. Barbarian rising under Gepids scatters Huns.
455: Second Sack of Rome Vandals from N. Africa sail up Tiber and sack Rome. Extended sack.
455-476: Barbarian Roman generals and puppet emperors. Generals of Barbarian birth, such as Ricimer, Orestes, set up puppets like Marjorian, as Emperor and concentrate only on Italy and South Gaul. Expansion of Barbarian kingdoms.
476: Deposition of last Western Emperor. Barbarian general Odovacar deposes Orestes' son Romulus Augustulus, and sends word to the Eastern Emperor Zeno that there is no need for a new Western emperor: Odovacar rules as Zeno's 'agent'.
388-393: Theodoric the Ostrogoth unseats Odovacar Zeno the Eastern Emperor sends Ostrogoths west to end their pressure on Constantinople. Theodoric's 'mission' is to unseat Odovacar. He does so, and establishes the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy. The Western Roman Empire ceases to exist.
Key People
- Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius was Emperor from 161-180. A Stoic philosopher by temperament, he spent most of his time fighting Barbarian invasions in the West and Parthian incursions in the east. A great plague occurred during his rule.
- Avidius Cassius Roman general under Marcus Aurelius, he was sent to the East to counter the Parthian threat from 162-165. He defeated the Parthians, and was made by Aurelius the head of all military east of Egypt. He eventually led a revolt against Rome but was defeated.
- Vespasian Roman Emperor 69-70 CE. Great general, strong leader. With him began a progression of successful emperors and the resulting peaceful Roman world that lasted up to the 140s CE.
- Commodius Successor as Emperor to Marcus Aurelius, 180-192. A failure as leader, interested only in enjoyment. Eventually murdered by Palace guards.
- Laetus Head, or Prefect, of the Praetorian Guard, he was responsible for the murder of Commodius in 392. He then set up Pertinax as Emperor, whom he also killed when the latter began reforms threatening the Praetorians' prerogatives (193).
- Helvius Pertinax Close adviser to Marcus Aurelius, he was tapped as Emperor by the Praetorian Guard upon Commodius' murder. In his three months as Emperor before he also was murdered, Pertinax tried to reform state finances, administration, and terms of military service.
- Septimius Severus First of the Severi emperors, he came to power after the 193-194 civil war. Hailing himself as Pertinax's avenger, he took Rome, ousted the Praetorian Guard, undertook successful campaigns against the Parthians, and further eroded the power of the Senate.
- Caracalla Septimius Severus' son, he ruled 211-17, disregarding senatorial prerogatives and equalizing citizenship status of all free men in Roman lands. Continued Parthian campaigns. Curried favor with troops, beginning the process imbuing armies with king-making powers. He was murdered.
- Severi Dynasty of Roman Emperors descending from Septimius Severus, beginning in 193 and lasting to 235. Increasingly ineffective with the passing of years, they relied on the army for support, making it the decisive force in emperor- creation.
- Gallienus Military emperor facing terrible territorial challenges. During his reign, Alamanni invaded on the Rhine frontier and pushed as far as Italy, Franks moved into Gaul, and the new Sassanids pushed westwards through Armenia into Roman lands. At the same time, Gallienus had to deal with several breakaway provinces in the West under rival claimants to the Roman throne.
- Claudius II Gothicus Barracks-room emperor, he faced major Gothic incursions into the Balkans and even Asia Minor in 269-70. He defeated them decisively, however, removing any Gothic threat to Rome for the next one-hundred years.
- Probus A late military-camp emperor, Probus (r. 275-282) took on and defeated Alamanni and Franks in Gaul, restoring the Rhine and Upper Danube frontier. Also defeated Vandals, and came to a treaty with the Sassanids. Was assassinated when his army, whom he had been driving hard, heard of another claimant.
- Diocletian Last of the military-camp emperors, this Balkan general ruled from 285-306. Reformed the empire administratively, splitting it into East and West, militarily, fiscally, and in terms of court procedure. Under his hand, a far more absolutist state emerged. He undertook the last Roman persecution of Christians before Constantine took power and embraced Christianity.
- Maximian Diocletian's colleague, or co-emperor in the West. They both retired in 306.
- Maxentius One of Maximian's junior colleagues, or Caesars, he became an imperial claimant after their retirement. Constantine defeated him at the Battle of Milvian Bridge.
- Constantine the Great Ruled 312-37. Continued Diocletian's reforms, founded Constantinople, and began the Christianizing of the Empire. Tried to solve doctrinal disputes in the Empire. Truly the first medieval ruler.
- Licinius Constantine's western co-emperor until Constantine defeated him in battle and temporarily reunited the Empire.
- Arius A priest in Alexandria in the 320s, he believed that Christ was less divine than God, being his son and corporeal. Not accepted as orthodox creed, his ideas became the Arian Heresy, a form of Christianity to which the Goths were converted.
- Ulfillias The son of Cappadocian slaves captured by Goths, he became an Arian priest, and converted Goths to Arian Christianity in the 350s, when Arianism was embraced as the official creed of the East. Makes Goths heretical to westerners.
- Julian the Apostate Roman Emperor, 361-65. Opposed to Christianity, he tried to cleanse Empire of it in favor of a pantheistic, pagan creed. Ideas did not outlast him.
- Valentin In the 370s, Alamanni raided Gaul, but were stopped by the western Emperor Valentin. In 375, Valentin died while pushing the Sarmatians back over the Danube. He was succeeded by Gratian in the West and Valens in the East
- Gratian Emperor in the West at time of the Battle of Adrianopole, where his Eastern colleague Valens was killed while fighting Visigoths. He tried to bring reinforcements, but Valens did not await his arrival.
- Valens Emperor in the East from 364-378. Allowed Visigoths to cross the Danube and settle in Roman territory. Roman authorities did not supply them well with food and let them starve; revolting, they met Valens in battle near Adrianopole in 378. Not waiting for reinforcements led by Gratian, the Emperor of the West, Valens attacked, and was routed when Ostrogothic cavalry intervened. Valens died at the scene.
- Fritigern Elected Visigothic king in 370s because he agreed not to stay and fight the Huns.
- Theodosius Eastern Emperor who ruled from Valens' death in 378 to 395. He patriated the Visigoths as foederati within Roman lands, attempting to guarantee them food supplies. He also made Christianity the state religion.
- Alaric Visigothic King from 395. Led Visigoths on multiple forays into Gaul, then into Italy, where, failing in negotiations with the Emperor and Senate, he sacked Rome slightly. Then, he took his people south to try to obtain passage to North Africa across the Mediterranean. After ships were destroyed, he died in 412.
- Rhadagaesius Vandal king, he led his tribe and others in plundering Gaul, 395-406.
- Stilicho Roman-Barbarian Master of Soldiers in West, 406-12. Fought holding actions against Vandals, Burgundians, and Visigoths. Would not consent to Visigothic incorporation into Roman forces as foederati. Was strangled by Honorius after Visigothic departure form Italy.
- Honorius Roman Emperor in West, 395-423. Would not negotiate with Visigoths, instead choosing to barricade himself in Ravenna. Held the throne during first sack of Rome in 410.
- Athaulf Visigothic king, 412-16, succeeding Alaric. Took Visigoths out of Gaul after failed attempt to cross to North Africa. Fought for Honorius against other claimants, but was unable to secure food for his people. Died while negotiating for food and normalized status within the Empire.
- Theodosius II Eastern Emperor, 408-450. Sent army west after death of Honorius in 423, was able to install the child Valentinian III as Western Emperor in Rome.
- Valentinian III Child-emperor established in West by Theodosius II in 425. Operated under the influence of his mother as well as his Master of Soldiers, Aetius.
- Aetius Roman-Barbarian Master of Soldiers, 430s-451. Had lived as a Hunnic hostage, knew them well, and was able to recruit them in armies to fight Germanics. Had to do reverse when Huns invaded 450s. After their defeat, he was murdered by the West Roman Emperor, Valentinian.
- Theodoric the Visigoth Visigothic King from 440 to 451. His forces were instrumental in Aetius' defeat of Attila the Hun. Theodoric died in the battle.
- Gaiseric Vandal ruler able to transport his tribe to North Africa in 429. His forces took Carthage in 435, began pirate raiding of Mediterranean cities, and were able to sack Rome in 455 by sailing up the Tiber.
- Augustine Bishop of Hyppo in North Africa, died witnessing Vandal siege of city. Emphasized a more Christian, otherworldly approach to life. Wrote the famous philosophical text, City of God. His main idea was that Christianity did not ensure Rome's fall, but rather, that there was something better out there.
- Rouia (Rugilla) King of recently unified Huns in 440s. He raided the Balkans extensively and was able to extort increasing tribute from the Byzantine Empire.
- Attila Hun leader, 450-454. After extorting increasing tribute from Constantinople, he went West, ravaging Roman lands, ambiguously invited by Honoria. He was defeated by a joint Roman-Germanic army at Battle of Catalaunian Plains, 451.
- Marcian Eastern Roman Emperor in 450, he refused to pay the higher tribute that Attila was demanding.
- Honoria Valentinian III's daughter, Honoria rejected her father's candidate for her husband, and in 450 wrote to Attila asking for his protection. He took this as a marriage proposal and came west, asking for half of the Empire as a dowry.
- Pope Leo I The Christian Pope in 451, when Attila's forces penetrated into Italy. According to reports, he and a party of Senators convinced the Huns to spare Rome a sacking.
- Ricimer Barbarian general acting for Rome, he defeated Vandals in a sea battle in 456. Set up Marjorian as a puppet Emperor, but could not carry offensive to North Africa. Tiring of Marjorian and wanting some arrangement with the Vandals, he disposed of the Roman and installed a distant relative of the Vandal king as Emperor. Both Ricimer and his Emperor were dead by 472.
- Marjorian Western emperor set up in 460 by Ricimer. He could not carry the anti- Vandal offensive further, as the Roman fleet was destroyed in storm. Ricimer soon replaced him with a different puppet.
- Orestes Barbarian Master of Soldiers in the West, he made his son Romulus Augustulus Emperor in 475. He was killed shortly thereafter.
- Romulus Augustulus Made emperor by his Barbarian father Orestes in 475, he lasted less than a year, being deposed by Odovacar, another Barbarian general. Romulus became a bishop.
- Odovacar Barbarian warlord who in 476 deposed Romulus Augustulus, the final western Emperor. Sending notification to Zeno that there was no need to appoint a further western Emperor, Odovacar claimed that he would rule in the west in Zeno's name. Zeno seemed to acquiesce, then sent Theodoric the Ostrogoth west in 488, both to eliminate Odovacar, and to get the Gothic menace out of Byzantine lands.
- Zeno Eastern Roman Emperor from 474-91. Wanting both to remove the Ostrogoth threat from the East and to unseat Odovacar, who had deposed Romulus Augustulus, Zeno sent Theodoric the Ostrogoth into Western Rome with the mission of defeating Odovacar. Theodoric succeeded, and Zeno thus had some responsibility in the founding of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy.
- Theodoric the Ostrogoth In 488, he was sent west by Eastern Emperor Zeno to subdue Odovacar. He succeeded by 493, and set up his own Ostrogothic Kingdom. Respectful of Roman custom, Gothic Arianism prevented him from bridging the cultural chasm.
Key Terms
Barracks-room Emperor
Name given to Emperors rising to power on the strength of their armies after the fall of the Severi. These emperors often spent most of their time at war, fighting against Barbarians, Parthians, and Sassanids, though they themselves often were not pure Roman born.
Pax-Romana
The idea of the political, economic unity of the Mediterranean world in which security, peace—pax—was guaranteed by Roman law and military force. A reality from 90 to 200 CE.
Praetorian Guard
Elite force of palace guards established in the beginning of Empire period, to guard the person and family of the Emperor. From time to time, they would emerge as a political force, killing and proclaiming rulers. Eliminated at end of third century.
Parthians
Historic opponents of Roman rule in Mesopotamia, they became warlike again in 160s. Defeated by Marcus Aurelius, they caused intermittent problems into the 200s, then were replaced by the Sassanids, who were more aggressively expansionist and thus more of a threat.
Marcomanni
German Barbarian tribe on the north-central Rhine, they began invasions of Roman lands in the 160s, requiring Marcus Aurelius' sustained attention. Belong to the western German tribal groups.
Quadi
Barbarian tribe situated opposite the Roman borders in Pannonia (Balkans), they raided westward from the reign of Aurelius.
Sarmatians
Lower Balkan Germanic Tribes, they raided along with the Quadi during Marcus Aurelius' time. Were defeated by him.
Sassanid
Persian dynasty that overthrew the Parthians in 220s. More aggressively expansionist than their predecessors, they claimed lands ruled by ancient Persian states going as far West as Palestine. Posed a large military threat to Roman lands until the 630s. Made life difficult for military emperors of third century.
Alamanni
A Germanic super-tribe emerging around 200 on the upper Rhine just opposite Gaul. Began raiding from the late 200s, and especially after the Hunnic arrival in the 300s.
Franks
German super-tribe from the 250s, on the northern Rhine between Alamanni and Saxons. They worked as Roman foederati, and began to cross the Rhine only in the 400s. Eventually converted to Catholic Christianity, ensuring greater acceptance in West.
Visigoths
The western Goths, they settled north of Thrace and east of the Adriatic Balkans. Coming into Roman lands initially with imperial agreement in 375, they soon rebelled against the Roman's negligent treatment and defeated Valens in 378, then moved westward from 395. When no Roman authority would consent to their integration into Roman forces in exchange for food, their leader Alaric led an invasion of Italy resulting in the plundering of Rome. After failing to get to North Africa, the Visigoths, under Athaulf and Wallia, moved north from Italy into Gaul, where they fought for Rome against claimants. In late 418, they were made foederati, settled in western Gaul, and allowed hospitalitas. They moved from their assigned lands to Iberia after the 430s, yet assisted Aetius to defeat Huns in 451. Kingdom in Spain lasted to c.a. 700.
Ostrogoths
The eastern Goths, they were forced west from the Crimea and Black Sea area to north of Thrace and Visigoth realms in the 370s. Assisted in Visigothic defeat of Valens in 378. Became trouble for East Rome when they pressured emperors, notably Zeno in 470-80s. Zeno responded to the problem by encouraging Theodoric the Ostrogoth to lead his people west and unseat Odovacar in 488-93, thus freeing the east from the Ostrogoth menace. Theodoric overthrew Odovacar and established the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy, Southern Gaul. Christians of the Arian persuasion.
Burgundians
Eastern Germanic tribe, a late entrant into Roman territories, came with Rhadagaesius and his Vandals and plundered from 410s onward, eventually settling as foederati in the Worms region. After the Roman fall, they moved south to Gaul just beyond the Italian Alps to found a Burgundian Kingdom.
Huns
Non-Germanic, Slavic-Turkic tribe from far Central Asia, arrived in Roman theatre in 350-70s, driving all tribes west to pile up on Roman borders. Those that did not flee were subjugated and incorporated as slaves into Hun armies. Set off Germanic migrations into Roman lands. Raided East Roman areas from 430s, under unitary rulers—Rugilla and Attila. Went west under Attila, pillaged 451-3. Were defeated by Aetius, Roman and German troops in 451, Battle of Catalaunian Plains. Were scattered by Germanic Uprising in 455.
Vandals
East German tribe located beyond Burgundians before 400. Beginning in 406, entered Gaul across Rhine at Mainz. They traveled and pillaged all through Gaul and Iberia, crossing to North Africa in 429. After taking Carthage, they took up piracy in the Mediterranean and cut off food supplies to Rome from North Africa. In 455, Vandal ships sailed up the Tiber and sacked Rome.
Limes
Latin term for the fortified border areas along the Rhine and Danube rivers.
Nicomedia
Ancient city in Western Asia Minor. Diocletian ruled from there, beginning the tradition of imperial rule from East.
Tetrarchate
Method of rule innovated by Diocletian in order to assure smooth imperial succession. Under this design, two Augusti, one in the East and one in the West, would rule togetherBelow each ruled a junior colleague, or Caesar, who was a trusted general. When an Augustus position became vacant, the corresponding Caesar would occupy it, and this new Augustus would raise up a new, trusted Caesar. The system did not ultimately work, giving way to civil war in 306.
Decurions
Urban officials with municipal responsibility. Also called curiales, beginning with Diocletian their roles expanded to include tax collection. The class was made hereditary to prevent people from escaping the difficult task of tax-collection.
Foederati
An arrangement with Barbarian tribes across Roman borders under which the Barbarians would fight in support of Roman interests in return for goods or funds. From 370s, such agreements were applied also to Barbarians within Roman borders.
Arian
A version of Christianity based on the teachings of Arius, a priest who believed that Christ was less divine than God, being his son and corporeal. Though long accepted through much of the East and instrumental in converting many Goths to Christianity, Arianism was never accepted in the West and soon became known as the Arian Heresy. The resulting religious divide between Goths and Roman Christians forestalled attempts at assimilation.
Byzantium
Ancient fishing village in the Bosphorous Straits where Europe meets Asia. Constantine selected it as the site for his new imperial city, which he christened Constantinople. After the 470s, more than a century after the demise of the Western Empire, Byzantium would become the popular name of the Eastern continuation of the Roman Empire.
Byzantine Empire
Another name for the Eastern Roman Empire, originating from the fact that Constantinople was constructed on the ruins of the ancient city Byzantium.
Constantinople
The capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople was founded on the remains of the ancient city of Byzantium, with construction beginning in 325. One of the richest cities on earth from 400-1300, because it was founded by the Christian Constantine, it also was one of the first important cities to encompass a totally Christian milieu.
Volkerwanderung
German for 'Peoples'; Wanderings', it refers to the great Barbarian migrations lasting from 150 CE until the 550s.
Wergeld
Germanic justice system, focusing on avoidance of blood-feuds by assigning cash payments to different kinds of physical offenses; it was based upon severity of offense, and the victim's social status.
Hospitalitas
Roman legal device, originally entailing the quartering of Roman troops in rural agricultural areas during the winter to provide them with provisions. Modified after the 420s, it was used to legalize Germanic residence in Gaul, Iberia, and to provide them with access to a portion of agricultural production.
latifundia
Estates set up by rural elites (senators, officials, etc.) beginning in the 100s; beginning with the 300s, peasants who could not afford the recent tax bills, took up residence as employees of the estates. The peasants, tied to these lands, began the road to enserfment, especially once Germanic notables began to possess latifundia after the 440s.
Key Events
Battle of Milvian Bridge (312)
Battle between Maxentius and Constantine in Italy over control of the empire. After experiencing Christian visions, Constantine went on to defeat his rival and become emperor.
325 Council of Nicaea
Held in Western Asia Minor under Constantine's supervision, a Church council called to sort out the Arian dispute regarding the relationship between Christ and God in terms of degrees of divinity. Though the Orthodox creed was established proclaiming the co-equality of divinity, many were not convinced, Arianism continued, and even became the East's official creed for a time.
Battle of Adrianopole
Battle between Eastern Roman forces led by Valens and Visigothic/Ostrogothic forces in 378. At the battle, Valens refused to wait for reinforcement led by the Western Roman Emperor Gratian, and attacked. The Romans were routed, Valens was killed, and the Eastern army was decimated. The aftermath was large-scale settlement of Goths within Roman lands.
Battle of Catalaunian Plains
A 451 battle in central Gaul, in which Barbarian troops, with a small Roman contingent, defeated the forces of Attila the Hun. Overall command was held jointly by Aetius and Theodoric the Visigoth, who died here.
