European History Roman Empire (60 BCE-160 CE) Brief Overview Timeline People Events & Qs
To view other notes of European History Click Here.
Brief Overview
By 47 BCE Caesar had won the civil war against Pompei, and soon became dictator, planning a major reconstruction of republican government. He was assassinated in 44, however, by a conspiracy of senators acting to save the Republic. Marcus Antonius then stepped forward as major claimant to power, while the Senate coalesced around Octavian, an heir listed in Caesar's will. After indecisive battles, the two put off final conflict in a second triumvirate, including Lepidus. Finally, the former two broke, and in 30 BCE, Octavian defeated Mark Antony at Actium. In the next twenty years, Octavian (now named Augustus) created the Principate, a new form of Roman government giving increased powers to a non-elective Princeps who would evolve into Emperor by the mid-first century CE.
Tiberius took over as Princeps in 14 CE, having established a solid military reputation in the Rhine area. His rule was characterized by increasingly withdrawn and autocratic power. His successor, Caligula, went quickly insane, prompting the Praetorian Guard to murder him and proclaim Claudius Emperor in 41 CE. Less glamorous than his predecessors, Claudius did contribute to increased regularization of imperial administration, and enfranchised new elements into the roman elite, such as equestrians and some Gaulic chieftains. He in turn was succeeded by Nero in 55, who, after five good years, rapidly declined into a murderous depravity. After executing some of the Empire's best generals and senators, he committed suicide in 69, while four generals were in open revolt, and Judaea was in arms against imperial control. Germanic tribes were also acting up.
After Nero, four claimants to power emerged. Vespasianus (r. 69-79), the commander in Judaea, emerged as victor from this Year of the Four Emperors. He established the Flavian dynasty, represented by his sons Titus (80-81) and Domitian (r. 81-96). A more sober administration emerged, bringing more equestrians into service, with the Emperors themselves not originating in Rome. Conflicts with Germanic tribes such as the Quadi and Marcomanni indicated the future difficulties, while Dacian marauding in the Danube region provided opportunities for Roman conquest, realized under Nerva (96-98) and Trajan (98-117).
The most popular Roman Emperor after Augustus, Trajan also engaged in eastern conquests against Parthia, yet died before the troubled regions could be adequately secured. His successor, Hadrian (117-138), abandoned Parthian expansion, yet maintained gains in Dacia and Moesia, allowing the gradual process of Romanization and Latinization to begin. In his attempts to administratively regularize all regions in the Empire and rationalize Italy's judicial districts, he incurred the resentment of Italian elites, and died unpopular, for this as well as for his lack of conquest. The reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161) showed Rome entirely at peace and with great wealth, though the economy remained under-developed and extractive. All the while, German tribes had been migrating west and congesting the Danubian and Rhine border areas.
From the 160s, the Emperor Marcus Aurelias was forced to deal with Marcomanni, Sarmatian, and Quadi incursions across the Rhine and Danube in numbers never seen before. Though ultimately able to beat them back, the campaigns increased in cost, made field generals more popular and restive, and were a sign of looming problems.
Timeline
44 BCE: Caesar defeats Pompeians at Munda Renewed as dictator, then as dictator for life. Assassinated March 15.
41-33: Second Triumvirate among Mark Antony, Lepidus, Octavian Antony's Parthian campaigns
33-30: Mark Antony—Octavian Civil War Octavian victorious at Actium, 30.
27 BCE - 14 CE: Augustus' (Octavian's) rule Principate est., 27 and 23. Advances along Rhine, renewed political stability.
14 CE - 38: Tiberius' rule Growing autocracy, secluded rule, judicial terrors.
38–41: Caligula's rule Caligula becomes increasingly insane, murdered by Praetorians
41-54: Claudius Administrative advances, frictions with Senate, conquest of Britain and Mauretania
54-68: Nero Good rule at first, then insanity; dynastic intrigues, Rome burns, Christians persecuted, Jewish Revolt begins.
69: Year of Four Emperors Legions revolt, turn on selves and state, Vespasian wins.
79-96: Titus and Domitian Jewish Revolt ended, increased autocracy, friction with Senate. Domitian murdered.
96-98: Nerva Alimenta, adoption of Trajan as heir.
98-117: Trajan Rome at peak of power, prestige. Parthian and Dacian campaigns.
117-138: Hadrian Retrenchment in Parthia, lack of foreign adventures, resentment of Italy and Senate and being 'demoted'.
138-161: Antoninus Pius Rome at peak of power, wealth, peace.
161-180: Rule of Marcus Aurelius
162-165: War Against Parthia Victories at Dura Europa, Ctesiphon.
165-180s: Plague in Roman Lands
Key People
Sextus Pompei
Consul in 70s BCE, procunsul thereafter. Toured through, Near East reorganizing provinces there. Was in First Triumvirate with Caesar, before the they broke ranks and became chief antagonists until 46 BCE, when Caesar triumphed at Munda.
Caesar
Consul, then procunsul in 60s-50s When denied power by the Senate, crossed the Rubicon with his loyal forces and wrested power in Rome. Established the Triumvirate with Sextus Pompei, then the two split and became bitter rivals for power. Built a faction around himself and soon defeated Pompei, after which he took power in Rome and enacted major reforms of the Senate, settlement, etc. Assassinated by the Senate, which feared he was destroying the Republic, on March 15, 44 BCE.
Marcus Antonius
A lieutenant of Caesar, saw self as his heir. After Second Triumvirate of 43-33, in which he shared power with Octavian, the two came into open conflict. Allied with Cleopatra, but was finally defeated in 30 BCE.
Lepidus
Second Triumvirate member. Retired soon after troops defected to Octavian.
Octavian
Nephew of Caesar, adopted by him before latter's death, and listed as heir in will. Fought Mark Antony, eventually establishing undisputed, unchallenged rule over Rome and inaugurating the Principate. Ruled 30 BCE to 14 CE.
Agrippa
Comrade-in-arms, friend, and adviser to Octavian. His generalship assured Octavian's victories, helped in the urban infrastructure of Rome, and assured the success of the Rhine campaigns. Died before he could become Emperor.
Augustus
'Bringer of Increase'; an epithet of the gods given to Octavian by the Senate in the 20s BCE.
Tiberius
Ruled 14-38 BCE. Strong general under Augustus, passed over as heir several times. Disliked by Senate for detached, reclusive, at times vicious behavior.
Marcomanni
Germanic tribe in the Rhine area, active from the first century CE.
Varrus
Roman legate sent to quiet the Marcomanni in 7 CE. Was defeated in Teutoburgian forest in what became a massacre.
Sejanus
Companion to Tiberius, he engineered excessive treason trials and nepotism in Rome while the Emperor was living on Capri. May have conspired against Emperor. Tiberius had him murdered in 31 CE.
Caligula
Gaius, 'little boots', son of Augustus' adopted heir Germanicus. Became Emperor in 38, soon descended into insanity and Hellenistic addictions. Murdered in 41 by Praetorian Guard.
Claudius
Son of Augustus, passed over several times, disliked for physical infirmities. Became Emperor upon Caligula's death and ruled from 40–54 CE. Was administratively and military successful—conquered Britain—but disliked by Rome elite. Died 54 CE.
Nero
Adopted son of Claudius, and was son of Agrippina the Younger. Early years of his rule (55-61) went well, then quickly descended into a vicious madness reminiscent of Caligula; became uninterested in army or administration, obsessed only with Greek Hellenism. Killed several generals and wives, committed suicide in 69 CE.
Vespasianus
Equestrian background general in Judaea who rose in 69, eventually fought off other military claimants to the throne, and became emperor from 69-79 CE, establishing the Flavian dynasty, of which Trajan was a member.
Plautinus
Generla from Claudius' era, conquered Britain for Empire in 44 CE.
Paulinus
General of Claudius who conquered Mauretenia and annexed it for Rome.
Burrus
One of Nero's early tutors during the good years.
Seneca
Roman scholar and early tutor of Nero. Killed by him in terrors.
Corbulo
Sucessfull Roman general in East. Summoned by Nero to Rome and ordered to commit suicide, which he did, in 66 CE.
Gessius Florus
Roman procurator in Judaea when Jewish Revolt began in 68 CE. Eventually became the imperial legate after the war.
Galba
Spanish governor revolting in 68-69, during Year of Four Emperors. From ancient senatorial family, he was accepted in Rome, but had insufficient forces to beat off other claimants. Was killed in 69.
Otho
One-time crony of Nero who bribed the Praetorian Guard to raise him as Emperor in 69 CE. Was defeated by Vitellus in 69 CE.
Vitellus
One of four claimants to the throne in 69 CE. Defeated Otho, though ultimately defeated by Vespasian.
Titus
Vespasian's son and successor, both in command of Palestine and, ultimately, the Principate. Ruled 79-81 CE.
Quadi
Germanic tribe in Rhine-Danube area.
Domitian
Second son of Vespasian. Unpopular ruler, but not ineffective. Murdered 96 CE.
Dacians
People of Transylvania, possessing organized, fortified kingdom. Harassed sub- Danubian Roman lands beginning in Domitian's time. Trajan finally burst through into their lands and annexed the region, leading to its Latinization.
Nerva
Place-holder Emperor after Domitian. Known for Alimenta and adoption of Trajan as heir.
Chosroes
Parthian king excessively friendly with Armenia, thus encouraging Trajan to invade Parthian lands from 113.
Trajan
Roman Emperor, 98-117. Most popular emperor after Augustus. Expanded Roman lands into Danube area and east. Under his rule, Rome had good government and finances. He treated the Senate well.
Hadrian
Ruled 117-138. Not popular, in that was not an agressive emperor externally, and seemed to hint at demotion of Italy's status domestically. Faced and put down another Jewish revolt in Palestine.
Antoninus Pius
Ruled 138-161. His reign was extremely uneventful internally, with external peace and wealth. Germans start to become restive. Rome's peak of power.
Key Terms and Events
Terms
equites
Knights-turned middling entrepreneurs from the provincial Italian towns with economic interests in Rome. Cultivated by Emperors as a counterweight in the imperial administration to senators, who saw them as a distinct class. Were co-opted into Senate, over time replacing most patricians.
Proconsul
Post given to consuls after their year of tenure. Was a provincial military leadership assignment, its appointment came into hands of emperors as early as Augustus.
Praetorian Prefect
Head of the Praetorian Guard, the palace guard of the Emperor and his possessions. Became king-makers at times of socio-political instability. An Augustinian innovation.
Alimenta
Nerva's loans to small agriculturalists, the proceeds of which went to help the fisci of Italian and Gaulic towns. Continued by Trajan.
Aelia Capitolina
Trajan's idea to rebuild and repopulate Palestine with a non-Jewish, Roman capital.
Latifundia
Middle to large estates in Italy and southern Gaul. Material basis for patrician-equestrian wealth and city-growth.
Events
Munda
Last Caesar-Pompei era civil war battle. Caesar defeats Pompei in 46 BCE.
Ides of March
Actually refers the middle of the month; the ides of March simple means March 15. Made famous because on March, 15 44 BCE, Caesar was murdered by a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius. The Senators feared he was becoming a monarch, and killed Caesar to save the Republic.
Actium
Final Octavian-Marcus Antonius battle, 30 BCE. Mark Antony loses naval battel as his squadrons and Cleopatra abandon him.
Teutoburgian Forest
Site of Varrus' defeat and massacre of Roman legion by Germanic Barbarians in 7 CE. Only military disaster of Augustus' reign; ended his plans to conquer up to Elbe.
Piso's Conspiracy
Conspiracy of several Senators and Roman elites to unseat Nero and install the senator Piso in 64-65. It failed and all conspirators were murdered, leading to new trials and terrors.
Bedricum I
Battle between Otho and Vitellus at Cremona in 69 CE. Backed only by the Praetorian Guard, Otho was outnumbered and defeated.
Bedricum II
Battle between Antonius Primus and Vitellus at Cremona later in 69. Fighting on Vespasian's behalf, Primus defeated Vitellus when the latter's officers defected.
Study Questions
Describe the measures Augustus took to reestablish political stability and explain how he changed the government and the army. Why was he successful?.
After the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, Octavian had quite a task in front of him. Not only was he seen as a bloody ex-triumvir, but he now led an empire that had been at war for about 50 years, and had not the system of government to prevent future conflict. First, Octavian needed to restore the confidence of the people and aristocracy in him and Rome. Second, he had to do away with the Republican form of government, which could not suit an empire, and whose proconsuls had armies loyal to them alone. Lastly, he had to ensure a smooth succession. All the while, he had to avoid offending the aristocracy.
In order to restore roman confidence, Octavian remained at home in 28, the first time a Roman consul had done so in twenty years. Also, he took a census, the first in 70 years, and, by reducing the number of legions from 60-28 he reduced the risk of war for a people tired of it. Confidence was restored, so much so that interest rates went up. Still, Octavian's largest task lay ahead. He needed to change the government in a way that could guarantee army loyalty and create a system to professionally govern the empire. His idea was the Principate, a sui generus, gradual process whereby the Princeps, or first citizen, gained more power over time without offending the sensibilities of the republican minded senators. On January 27 Octavian went before the Senate and gave up all his extraordinary and possessions. Because of his auctoritas, the senators asked him to take control of Iberia, the Gauls, and Syria. Also the Senate continued to vote him consulships, along with naming him Augustus, a near deistic appellation showing their gratitude.
Later, finishing touches were put on the Principate in 23, when, after recovering from an illness, he gave up his annual consulship so as not to offend the senators. Also, the Senate granted him maius imperium, which surpassed anyone else's imperium, and did not lapse upon crossing the Pomerium. Further, he got tribunicia potestas, which allowed him to introduce or veto legislation. Theoretically a collection of powers granted by the people, it did not appear as autocracy.
Also, Augustus reformed the nature of the Empire by standardizing the composition and opportunities of the senators and equites by requiring good character, army service, and sufficient wealth. Further, he standardized the army into a standing force of 28 legions. Each regular soldier served 20 years at a decent wage, and on retirement got a guaranteed pension of funds or land. This made the army loyal to the Emperor, not to proconsuls as in Sulla's time. Further, like never before, he brought in equestrians to man the boards maintaining the Empire, including a grain board, a fire board, a water department and a Tiber board. Using the equites opened a lot of people up to progress and reduced antagonisms.
Augustus was successful because he completely changed the roman government. However, he could say he gave the Republic back to Rome, for he changed government without offending the republican aristocracy, and he got rid of the threat of rival proconsuls.
Claudius had been kept in the dark for decades, yet was a decent Princeps. Explain his rise to power and his accomplishments. What was his undoing?
After Caligula had insulted his empire and in particular an officer of the Praetorian Guard, he was murdered by the Guard, and while they searched the palace, they found Claudius hiding behind a curtain. At 50, he was weakened by physical disabilities, but by offering each member of the Guard 15,00 denarii, he got their support. The Senate, which was debating the return to republic, accepted Claudius with Herod Agrippa's intervention, in 41 CE. Militarily, his accomplishments included conquering Britain in 44 with the help of Plautinus, the annexation of Mauretania by Paulinus, and the annexation of Thrace. He also attracted other good generals, such as Corbulo and Vespasianus.
On the administrative side, he both made the civil service more powerful and efficient, and alienated the Senate due to his methods. He set up secretariats; Narcissus was in charge of correspondence, Pallas was in charge of finances, and Callistus dealt with legal matters. Further, he put equestrian prefects in senatorial provinces to monitor the financial situation there. This increased efficiency, but offended the senatorial class because 1) he revived the censor to eliminate bad senators, 2) deactivated magistracies duplicating imperial offices, 3) allowed some Gaulics to become quaestor, and 4) as he withdrew behind his secretariats, he changed the nature of the Principate, making it more autocratic. Also, his secretaries died quite rich, having started as freedmen. This further snubbed the Senate.
His undoing was his second wife Agrippina, who he married on Pallus' advice. The daughter of Germanicus, she was quite ambitious and wanted her son Nero to be adopted by Claudius, so that he could be emperor, allowing her to rule through him. Agrippina actually caused Claudius to ruin many a career, and finally murdered him in 54 CE.
By 150 CE, what was the status of Germanic society and what kind of threat did it present to Rome?
German tribes were clan-based, with blood-loyalty the basis for all bonds. Living intermittently in settled forest clearings called hamlets, they engaged in mixed subsistence cultivation of crops and animals. Cultivation was rudimentary given the hard clay soil and use of implements more suited to Mediterranean areas. There were no surpluses, so population remained small, around one million. Without much occupational specialization, they were an iron-age culture emphasizing war.
For the first century CE, they were not a real danger to Rome: 1) Poverty ensured poor armor and weapons, and 2) they had limited tactics, consisting of ambushes and a mass charge. 3) Divisions into numerous small tribes meant a lack of political cooperation. 4) There was no real, continual government beyond the clan. In peacetime, tribal assemblies made up of all free men and warriors decided issues of peace and war. They would elect temporary war chiefs, whose legitimacy ended after hostilities.
After Caesar had taken Gaul up to the Rhine, expansion space was curtailed for the nomadic tribes, causing demographic pressure on the borders. Some Germans began to come into contact with Roman civilization at border garrisons. They greatly admired the material aspects of Roman culture, such as arms, domestic wares, etc. Small numbers were accepted for service with Roman legions, and small scale German-Roman trade relations emerged involving cattle and slaves developed.
Gradual changes occurred in the next 250 years: A) Though kinship remained the primary bond, a new kind of political formation evolved: the Comitatus. Older, successful warrior chieftains took in younger aspirants, who then raided and shared the booty with each other. A kind of professional, more lethal warrior group came about, where bonds were now between man and lord, the latter signaling the beginning of a small aristocracy. B) At the same time, tribes began electing fewer, longer serving war-chiefs, as inter-tribe conflict increased, spurred by the desire to partake of Roman material culture. C) Eastern German tribes, Goths and Vandals, gradually migrated from North Poland to the Ukraine, pressuring the Danube frontier and settling north of the Black Sea, to the West of the Huns. D) Increasing numbers of Germans began to serve as Roman auxiliary forces just beyond the Roman borders, learning new tactics, acquiring better materials, coming to admire Roman society even more. Some even underwent a process of partial Romanization.
