History of USA War of 1812 (1809-1815) Brief Overview Timeline People Events & Qs
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Brief Overview
The immediate causes of the War of 1812 were a series of economic sanctions taken by the British and French against the US as part of the Napoleonic Wars and American outrage at the British practice of impressment, especially after the Chesapeake incident of 1807. In response to the 1806 British Orders in Council, which crippled American trade, the US (under Jefferson) first tried various retaliatory embargoes. These embargoes hurt the US far more than they did Britain, angering American citizens and providing support to War Hawks in Congress like Henry Clay. In 1812, with President Madison in office, Congress declared war against the British.
The war began with an attack on Canada, both as an effort to gain land and to cut off British supply lines to Tecumseh's Indian confederation, which had long troubled the US. The initial battles in Canada were not as easy as the War Hawks hoped, and the inexperienced American soldiers were pushed back rapidly. In fact, only by virtue of clutch naval victories by Oliver Hazard Perry on Lake Erie and Thomas Macdonough on Lake Champlain was a serious northern- front invasion of the United States, including New York, prevented. General William Henry Harrison's forces did manage to kill Tecumseh at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, in the midst of a decisive victory against the British General Isaac Brock's smaller force.
On the Mid-Atlantic Coast, British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area in 1814, and marched towards Washington. US General William Winder made an attempt to stop the British forces, commanded by General Robert Ross, at Bladensburg. The US troops were badly routed. The city of Washington was evacuated, and the British burned the Capitol and the White House, along with most of nonresidential Washington.
The British pressed onward, and Admiral Cochrane sought to invade Baltimore. General Ross was killed as his forces advanced towards the city, and their movement stalled. Cochrane's forces bombarded Fort McHenry, which guarded Baltimore's harbor, but were unable to take it. This event inspired Francis Scott Key, an American lawyer detained on one of Cochrane's ships, to write the Star-Spangled Banner. Unsuccessful at Baltimore, Cochrane's damaged fleet limped to Jamaica for repairs, and made preparations for an invasion of New Orleans, hoping to cut off American use of the Mississippi River.
By mid 1814, the War of 1812 was turning out to be tougher fighting than either side expected. Britain, caught up in the costly Napoleonic Wars, began to look for a way to extricate itself from its American commitment. In the Belgian city of Ghent, American negotiators (including John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay) met with British diplomats. After considerable bickering, the negotiators signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, officially ending the war. The treaty returned US-Britain relations to the same status as they had been before the war. The US neither gained nor lost any territory. Impressment went unaddressed.
The war was officially over, but news traveled slowly across the Atlantic Ocean. In New Orleans, Cochrane landed the British troops, who were still waiting for their replacement commander for Ross, General Packenham, to arrive from Britain. On January 8, 1815, Andrew Jackson's ragtag army soundly defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans. Even though this battle had been fought unnecessarily (the treaty was already signed) the US celebrated wildly, manifesting an upsurge in American nationalism.
Although the war had sheltered New England manufacturing from British competition, New England merchant shipping had been seriously hurt, and a group of Federalists met at the Hartford Convention in late 1814 to discuss their grievances. A few talked of secession from the Union, but most just wanted to make it hard for the US to declare war or impose embargoes in the future. When the news of the treaty from Ghent arrived, it made the Federalists look silly, or even treasonous. The Hartford Convention spelled the end of the Federalist Party.
Timeline
1804: Thomas Jefferson reelected
1806: British Orders in Council
1807: Chesapeake incident
late 1807: Embargo Act passed
March 1, 1809: Repeal of the Embargo Act
March 4, 1809: James Madison becomes President
1809: Non-Intercourse Act
1810: Macon's Bill No. 2 passed
November 1810: Madison announces Napoleon's compliance with Macon's Bill No. 2
November 7, 1811: Tecumseh's headquarter destroyed at Tippecanoe
June 1812: Orders in Council Suspended
June 1812: War Hawks declare war on Britain
August 20, 1812: USS Constitution defeats the Guerriere
1812: 3-pronged US attack on Canada
September 1812: USS Wasp fights the Frolic
1813: Battle of the Thames, Tecumseh killed
September 9, 1813: Perry forces surrender of British fleet on Lake Erie
September 11, 1814: Thomas Macdonough defeats the British near Plattsburgh in a naval battle
March 27, 1814: Battle of Horseshoe Bend
August 1814: 4,000 British land near Chesapeake Bay
August 24, 1814: Battle of Bladensburg: General Winder defeated
Dec 15, 1814: Hartford Convention begins
December 24, 1814: Treaty of Ghent officially ends War of 1812
January 5, 1815: Hartford Convention ends
January 8, 1815: Battle of New Orleans (Jackson crushes British)
Key People
John Quincy Adams
Sixth president of the United States (1825-1829) and leading formulator of American diplomacy.
Isaac Brock
General who commanded the British forces in Canada during the War of 1812.
Henry Clay
Kentucky Congressman and senator throughout the first half of the 19th century. During the War of 1812, Clay was Speaker of the House and a leading War-Hawk.
Thomas Cochrane
British Admiral who commanded the Royal Navy's actions in the War of 1812, particularly the naval aspects of the assaults on Baltimore and New Orleans.
William Henry Harrison
Ninth US President. Major General Harrison became famous for his victory over Tecumseh at Tippecanoe
Andrew Jackson
Also known as "Old Hickory", Jackson was the 7th US President (1829-1837). Jackson became popular thanks to several Indian campaigns against the Creek Indians and his stunning victory over British forces at New Orleans in January of 1815.
Thomas Jefferson
The 3rd US President (1800-1808), Jefferson was the author of the Declaration of Independence and a leading American political philosopher. Despite the unpopularity of his 1807 Embargo Act, he was followed in the presidency by his hand-picked successor, James Madison.
Francis Scott Key
American Lawyer detained by the British who, after seeing the American flag remain atop Fort McHenry during its nighttime bombardment in 1814, was inspired to write the Star-Spangled Banner.
Thomas Macdonough
US Naval Officer who embarrassed the British by winning the Battle of Lake Champlain (near Plattsburg) in 1814, using cables to swing his boat around in a crucial moment in the battle, presenting the enemy with a fresh broadside. His victory prevented a British invasion of New York.
James Madison
Founding Father and 4th US President (1809-1817). Madison had been Secretary of State for Jefferson, and as president he continued many of Jefferson's policies. The War of 1812 took place during Madison's presidency.
Edward Packenham
British General who was to replace Robert Ross after Ross' death at Baltimore. Packenham's late arrival in the New World severely hampered the amphibious invasion of New Orleans.
Oliver Hazard Perry
An American naval officer, Perry's small fleet won a celebrated battle against the British on Lake Erie.
The Prophet
Named Laulewasikau, a Shawnee visionary and brother of Tecumseh.
Robert Ross
British general who commanded land forces at the battle of Bladensburg in 1814, defeating General Winder and opening the road to Washington, which he burned, sparing many private residences. Ross was killed in the assault of Baltimore.
Tecumseh
Shawnee chief and leader who organized an intertribal confederation to fight against white encroachment in the Ohio Valley. He was defeated by Harrison at Tippecanoe. He died at the Battle of the Thames, while siding with British in the War of 1812.
William Winder
General who commanded the disorganized American forces at Bladensburg, leading to a complete route by the British.
Terms
Chesapeake
In 1807, off the Virginia Coast, the USS Chesapeake was approached by a British vessel, the HMS Leopard, which asked to board and reclaim 4 deserters. When the Chesapeake refused, the British vessel opened fire, in violation of international law and outraging the entire United States.
Constitution
Also called "Old Ironsides", this US Naval ship surprised the world when it defeated the HMS Guerriere in waters off Bermuda on August 20, 1812.
Democratic-Republicans
Party of Jefferson, opposed to the Federalists and their program of strong central government and loose interpretation of the Constitution. The Democratic-Republicans were a major political force from 1801-1825.
Embargo
An economic sanction that prevents goods from being shipped out of one country in order to hurt the economy of another country or countries.
Embargo Act
Jefferson's 1807 response to British activities like the Chesapeake Incident. Intended to hurt Britain and France, who were both interfering in US shipping, the Embargo Act caused economic discomfort in the US and was repealed on March 1, 1809, to be replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act.
Federalists
The political party of Alexander Hamilton, which advocated a strong central government and loose interpretation of the Constitution.
Fort McHenry
American island fortress that guarded Baltimore's Harbor. In 1814, it withstood British bombardment, inspiring Francis Scott Key to write the Star-Spangled Banner.
Impressment
Technique the British used to staff their ships. Sailors from other countries would be captured and forced to work for the British navy in a "press-gang" crew. Though certainly a British technique, it was not as prevalent as exaggerated by American propagandists.
Macon's Bill No. 2
Madison's 1810 ploy to get either Britain or France to lift trade restrictions. Under Macon's Bill No. 2, if one country agreed to free trade with the US, sanctions would be re-imposed against the other nation.
Non-Intercourse Act
After the repeal of the unpopular Embargo Act, this 1809 law restricted trade only with Britain and France.
Orders in Council
British laws requiring all ships wishing to trade with Europe to stop in a British port first. (Impossible under Napoleon's Continental System.
Secession
When a state or states leaves the union based on the argument that if the union no longer represents the interests of the state, it has a right ("States' Rights") to do so as a sovereign entity.
Star-Spangled Banner
America's National Anthem, written by Francis Scott Key in 1814: "Oh say can you see, by the dawn's early light, / What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming? / Whose broad stripes and bright stars, thro' the perilous fight, / O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming? / And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, / Gave proof thro' the night, that our flag was still there. / Oh say does the star-spangled banner yet wave / O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?" (There are several other verses)
War Hawks
Young group of politicians, representing mostly southern and western frontier states, coming to power in Congress in the 1810s. The War Hawks were tired of their fathers' stories about "whipping the British" in the Revolution and were anxious for war themselves. Henry Clay, elected Speaker of the House, was the most visible leader of the War Hawks.
Events
Bladensberg
August 24, 1814 battle in which British (under Ross) routed the Americans (under Winder) so quickly that it came to be called the "Bladensburg Races". This battle opened the way for the British to march to Washington, which they burned.
Treaty of Ghent
Signed on December 24, 1815 in the Belgian town of Ghent, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812, returning the situation between the US and Britain to its status quo ante bellum (the way things were before the war).
Hartford Convention
Meeting in late 1814 of discontented New England Federalists to discuss their grievances with the War of 1812. Some members contemplated secession, but the Hartford Convention was generally more moderate than that. When the war soon ended, the Hartford Convention suggested to many that the Federalist Party was full of traitors, and the Federalist Party fell into decline as a result.
Battle of Horseshoe Bend
Also called the Battle of Tohopeka; 1814 battle in which Andrew Jackson crushed the Creek Indian resistance once and for all, ending his Indian campaign and becoming a national military hero.
Battle of the Thames
October 5, 1813 battle in which General Harrison won a decisive victory over the combined British and Indian forces in Ontario, Canada. Tecumseh was killed in this battle. This victory helped make Harrison even more popular after Tippecanoe.
Tippecanoe
November 7, 1811 victory by General Harrison, in which he destroyed the headquarters of Tecumseh's Indian confederation. Although the US forces suffered heavy losses, Harrison was considered a victor and a hero, and he used the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!" in his later successful bid for the presidency.
Study Questions
How were the Napoleonic Wars tied to the War of 1812?
Before the war, France had started the Continental System, which closed European ports to ships that stopped in Britain. Britain then issued the Orders in Council, which, using Britain's dominant Navy, prevented ships from trading with Europe if they didn't stop in Britain first. The result hurt American traders, and Jefferson tried to impose his own sanctions on France and Britain with the Embargo Act of 1807 and then the following Non-Intercourse Act. This only damaged the US economy further and got no immediate results. Ultimately, Madison would try Macon's Bill No. 2, which led to further animosity between the British and the US, and was ultimately a major cause of the war of 1812.
Why was Macon's Bill No. 2 a failure?
Madison tried to play "hard ball" with France and Britain, promising to side with one if they would drop restrictions for the US. Napoleon, however, tricked Madison by falsely promising to drop restrictions, leading to a US declaration of war on Britain in 1812.
Who were the War Hawks? Why were they so pro-war?
The War Hawks were a contingent of young congressmen, mostly representing the South and the Western frontier (then places like Kentucky and Ohio). The War Hawks were too young to have fought in the Revolutionary War, and, tired of their father's stories of war, wanted their own war against the British. Claiming that they opposed Impressment and trade restrictions, the War Hawks probably used these as excuses to go to war for more "adventurous" reasons.
Why did the US lose so many battles at the beginning of the War of 1812?
The US army then consisted primarily of untrained amateurs and militiamen. In the invasion of Canada, American commanders foolishly split their forces into three branches, rather than concentrating an attack on Montreal. Further, the nation was not unanimously behind the war: New England was especially opposed to it. Finally, the outstanding and meticulous leadership of Britain's Isaac Brock gave the British many early victories despite being outnumbered in the war on the US-Canada front.
What happened to the Capitol and the White House in 1814?
After Bladensburg, Washington had to be evacuated. Some American advisors suggested blowing up the American Capitol and White House, so the British wouldn't get access to government documents. Madison, however, believed that the symbolic value of Britain burning the Capitol and White House would further outrage and unify the nation against Britain. Sure enough, General Robert Ross played into Madison's hands by torching the government buildings.
What was Francis Scott Key doing on a British ship during the bombardment of Fort McHenry?
Francis Scott Key, an American lawyer, had gone under a flag of truce to negotiate for the release of an American held prisoner by the British, Dr. William Beanes. Key was detained briefly because Cochrane did not want him giving the British position away, and while watching the attack on Fort McHenry in Baltimore's harbor, Key wrote the Star-Spangled Banner on the back of an envelope.
Why did Andrew Jackson win the battle of New Orleans?
Primarily thanks to luck. Jackson made several blunders, but the swampy geography coupled with the late arrival of Ross's replacement, Packenham, helped him gain a decisive victory.
Why was the Battle of New Orleans unnecessary?
The War of 1812 was already officially over when the battle was fought. The Treaty of Ghent had been signed weeks before, but news traveled slowly across the Atlantic in those days. In fact, even the city of Washington learned of Jackson's victory before it heard about the treaty. Many Americans therefore mistakenly believed that Jackson's victory had forced the treaty.
Why did Czar Alexander I encourage US-British negotiations at Ghent?
Alexander was afraid that Britain's resources were being depleted by the War of 1812. Facing the threat of Napoleon's Russian Campaign, Alexander knew he would need Britain's help in Europe, so he wanted Britain to disentangle itself from its American commitments as soon as possible.
Why did the Hartford Convention end the Federalist Party?
The Hartford Convention met secretly in late 1814 to discuss New England's grievances regarding the war. Although the formal demands of the convention were moderate, it was widely known that some members of the convention advocated secession. Thus, the Hartford Convention, in which the Federalists foolishly came up with complaints against the war just weeks before the war was over, so badly tinged the Federalists with suspicion of treason that they never recovered. After losing the next Presidential election, the Federalists dissolved.
